In recent decades, warmer winter air temperatures have enabled red (Rhizophora mangle) and black (Avicennia germinans) mangroves to expand into sub-tropical and temperate estuaries where eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) reefs occur and potentially reduce the reef substrate. Shoreline armoring may also be contributing to oyster reef loss. However, oysters can attach to these non-reef substrates and switch from a traditional …
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